Egypt
Flag of Egypt
(core territory)
(core territory)
The Sultanate of Egypt (Arabic: سلطنة مصر, romanized: Salṭanat Misr), more commonly known as Egypt (Arabic: مصر. Romantized: Misr), is a country located in the Middle East. Egypt is a Pan-Arabic constitutional monarchy and a regional power of the Middle East. It stretches from the jungles of Africa to the Mediterranean, bordering Mittleafrika, Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, and Syria.
History
Aftermath of the First Weltkrieg
Following the signing of the Peace with Honour, the Sultanate of Egypt remained a British protectorate with Hussein Kamel as Sultan. In 1917 Kamel died, and the throne went to his brother Fuad after Kamel’s son Kamal al-Din Husayn refused it. Fuad I’s reign would start off rocky for as a Sultan having to contend with the British control and the growing nationalist sentiment that opposed the influence of the British.
Egyptian Revolution
Nationalist sentiment grew, and during the British Revolution, the Egyptians revolted. Seizing the moment, Fuad positioned himself as a staunch Egyptian nationalist, leading the uprising against the British to prove his independence and fearing the revolution might turn on him. Amid global chaos, the Ottomans took control of the Suez Canal and Sinai Peninsula for "safety and security." While many wanted to fight, Fuad chose not to, recognizing he couldn't resist both the collapsing British Empire and the resurgent Ottomans.
To appease his subjects, Fuad created the 1925 Egyptian Constitution, modeled on the German Empire's. This helped solidify his popularity across Egypt.
Interwar Period
Following the Egyptian revolution, Egypt became a free country but still had many problems including Upper Egypt's agrarian society, the feudal turco-albanian aristocracy and the rising socialist unrest due to the Internationale supporting the Egyptian socialist party.
On 28 April 1936, Sultan Fuad I of Egypt died after a prolonged illness. His 16-year-old son, Farouk, ascended to the throne, but due to his young age, a regency was established. Farouk's rise to power was widely perceived as a symbol of progress and modernization. However, it also sparked controversy among some segments of the population, who viewed the idea of a young monarch as inappropriate, contributing to growing anti-monarchy sentiment.
Farouk was officially crowned in 1937 as Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, as he was considered 18 years old according to the Islamic calendar. Following his coronation, Farouk, with the support of the Wafd Party, initiated a series of reforms aimed at transforming Egypt into a constitutional monarchy. These reforms included the adoption of the French Civil Code, the implementation of nationalist education policies, the establishment of a progressive tax system, the launch of a literacy campaign and promoting Pan-Arabism.
In 1938, Cairo hosted the Third Arab Congress, which brought together representatives from Arab states under Ottoman control as well as independent Arab nations. The congress also included participants from non-Arab countries, such as Iran, members of the Internationale, Russian exile Sultan-Galiyev, and Ottoman poet Nazım Hikmet. The primary focus of the congress was the liberation of the Arab world and the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire.
The congress concluded with a speech by Sultan Farouk, in which he emphasized Egypt's historic mission as a bastion of liberation and expressed strong support for Palestine. Following the congress, Egypt intensified its clandestine operations within the Ottoman Empire and forged alliances, including with Idris of Cyrenaica. In a controversial move, Farouk publicly declared his ambition to incorporate the Levant into his Sultanate. Additionally, he entered into a pact with the Internationale to support the War of Liberation.
On February 14, 1938, the Cairo Pact was formalized, prompting the Ottoman Empire to attempt to overthrow Sultan Farouk by sending Abbas II to Egypt. This effort failed to gain significant support, and a massive anti-Zionist protest occurred in Cairo. In response, Sultan Farouk introduced general conscription and dispatched clandestine fedayeen to Palestine. Additionally, a new constitution was established by Farouk and the Wafd Party.
The Desert War
On December 22, 1938, Egypt invaded the Sinai Peninsula just before the evacuation of foreign consulates and the Ottoman Empire's direct control over the Mutasarrifate. Al Saud allied with Egypt in its conflict against the Ottoman Empire. On December 28, Egypt received modern machinery and ammunition from the Union of Britain. In response, Germany and the Danubian Confederation, viewing the Egyptian invasion as illegitimate aggression, decided to retain the International Gendarmerie and sent volunteer divisions to support the Ottomans. Hajj Amin al-Husseini returned to Palestine with Egyptian irregulars.
Mount Lebanon descended into chaos as the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP) and the Kataeb Party engaged in guerrilla warfare. The Great Syrian Revolt began on December 28, 1938, and by January 1939, Tripolitania, Yemen, and Iran had joined the war. The German Air Force dominated the skies over the Levant, giving the Ottomans an advantage. Despite being encircled on land in Palestine, the Ottoman Navy controlled the eastern Mediterranean. Sabahattin Pasha instituted extensive conscription, and Egypt formed Nubian regiments of Medjay.
Armenia rebelled and joined the war against the Ottoman Empire. By February 1939, German and Danubian divisions were advancing north of Syria, but in March 1939, Syrian General Adib Shishakli successfully defended northern Syria against the Germans. Yitzhak Sadeh and Osman Fuad Pasha managed to hold Palestine despite significant challenges. Egypt entered total mobilization, and the northern Syrian front stagnated. In late March, Egypt blockaded the Suez Canal.
On March 31, Yasin and Taha al-Hashimi successfully quelled the Kurdish revolt while holding the Iran-Iraq border. Danubian General Erhard Raus managed to breach Adib Shishakli’s defenses, pushing Syrian forces close to Damascus. Ömer Fahreddin Pasha was killed in Mohamed Naguib’s joint Egyptian-Saudi offensive in Hejaz. French and British engineers in Egypt improved the domestic arms industry. By April 1939, Sami al-Hinnawi captured Jerusalem, defeating Osman Fuad Pasha. Ber Borochov was killed in a Palestinian raid near Arad. The Egyptian offensive forced Osman Fuad Pasha to retreat from Palestine, leaving the Yishuv and foreign divisions isolated. Osman Fuad Pasha arrived in Anatolia, prompting the Ottoman Empire to mobilize every eligible adult.
Azerbaijan joined the war on the side of the Ottomans, and by mid-June 1939, the front line in Syria stagnated near Damascus. By late June 1939, Yasin al-Hashimi betrayed the Ottomans by declaring Iraq's independence and joining the Cairo Pact. With al-Hashimi's support, the Ottomans were forced to retreat from north Damascus to Homs. Iraq successfully pushed Iranian forces away from Sulaymaniyah.
By late July 1939, the Ottomans launched an offensive north of Iraq, pushing Taha al-Hashimi from Diyarbakir to Mosul. This offensive was hampered by Kurdish insurgents, high desertion rates, challenging geography, and the involvement of other belligerents. By December 1940, the Ottomans sent troops to the ports of Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Beirut in an attempt to break the Cairo Pact’s lines. This effort resulted in a moderate failure, with many troops captured.
Negotiations between David Ben Gurion and the future Syrian Foreign Minister Charles Helou led to a de-escalation of the war in Palestine, with assurances against widespread massacres. By January 1940, the Ottomans were gradually pushed from Homs to Aleppo by Egyptian General Mohamed Naguib and Syrian forces. Iran requested a ceasefire on January 14, 1940, hoping to push the Ottomans to believe they still had a chance. Newly rehabilitated Nuri Pasha recaptured Aleppo on January 24, allowing for a new Ottoman offensive. However, this offensive succeeded initially but ended catastrophically by early March 1940.
After several weeks of stalemate, the belligerents met in Adana to sign a treaty that officially marked the defeat of the Ottomans and recognized the independence of Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Yemen, and Armenia. The treaty also ended one of the most destructive wars in the Middle East's recent history. The signatories were Abd al-Rahman Shabandar (President of Syria), Yasin al-Hashimi (President of Iraq), Farouk II (Egypt), Abdulaziz ibn Saud (Saudi Arabia), Idris (Cyrenaica), Garegin Nzhdeh (Armenia), Prince Sabahattin (Ottoman Empire), Mammad Yusif Jafarov (Azerbaijan), Yahya al-Hamid (Yemen), and Abba Eban representing the Yishuv, the only non-state actor at the signing of the Adana Treaty.
Fourth Arab Congress
The Fourth Arab Congress was held in Cairo on May 5, 1940, to discuss the future of the newly established Arab states. During the congress, Egypt outlined its goals, which included the possibility of making Syria an autonomous governorate of Egypt, expelling Zionists from Palestine, defining the status of Modern Standard Arabic, and addressing the status of Jerusalem, Mecca, and Medina. Additionally, Egypt presented future objectives for an Arab Union, such as liberating the Maghreb from European control, supporting the Internationale, establishing trade relations, and standardizing norms among Arab nations in preparation for unification. These proposals angered many nationalists in the newly liberated states, including Yasin al-Hashimi, Antun Saadeh, Camille Chamoun, and Sami al-Hinnawi. As a result, Iraq officially withdrew from the Cairo Pact.
In response to Egypt's pro-International stance at the Fourth Arab Congress, Germany signed the Port Said Treaty with Egypt on May 13. Under this treaty, Egypt guaranteed the neutrality of the Suez Canal and the protection of German interests in Egypt in exchange for technical and financial assistance for damming projects in Egypt and Sudan.
On July 5, the Economic and Social Council was established within the Cairo Pact to coordinate development efforts among Arab countries. On July 10, the Wafd Party legislated new freedoms for women. Farouk performed the Umrah and met with Ibn Saud on August 19.
Egypt role in the Second Weltkrieg
On December 2, Egypt provided covert support to France during the Second Weltkrieg. Later, on December 19, Egypt legislated new policies to facilitate freedom of movement between Egypt and Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Tripolitania/Libya, and Syria.
Post-War Period
From January to August 1940, Cairo and Damascus engaged in negotiations for a transfer of sovereignty in exchange for assistance during a famine. These negotiations were halted by a coup d'état led by Sami al-Hinnawi, which resulted in Syria's withdrawal from the Cairo Pact.
In January 1940, Egypt Air secured a deal with Saudi Arabia and Yemen. During this period, Egypt emerged as a major economic and trading hub in the Levant, benefiting from its control of the Suez Canal, modernization programs, and trade in the Red Sea.
In 1941, the Hizb al-Ahrar Party won the election.
Under Serageddin's leadership, Egypt turned decisively away from the Internationale and openly supported the Reichspakt. Between 1941 and 1946, Serageddin and Farouk oversaw several modernization programs.
Diplomatically, Egypt maintained its strong anti-Zionist stance. With Syria unable to control Palestine, Egypt engaged in a clandestine war with the Yishuv by supporting Arab fedayeen raids against Zionist interests.
Culturally, Egypt experienced a golden age, with a flourishing cinematographic and musical industry that gained popularity throughout the Arab world.
Politics
The Sultanate of Egypt is a Parliamentary Semi-Constitutional Monarchy with a Sultan and Prime Minister which is held by the ruling Hizb al-Ahrar.